Skip to main content
Download PDF

Marine microalgae for bioremediation and waste-to-worth valorization: recent progress and future prospects

Blue Biotechnology volume 1, Article number: 10 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

In the quest for sustainable environmental solutions, marine microalgae emerge as powerful allies in bioremediation and biomass valorization endeavors. This review navigates through various facets of marine microalgae utilization, starting with isolation, screening, and identification techniques, which lay the foundation for understanding strain diversity and capabilities. Delving deeper, bioremediation mechanisms performed by marine microalgae are elucidated, showcasing the natural capacity to cleanse polluted environments via biosorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation. Furthermore, the waste-to-worth valorization of marine microalgae is explored, with comprehensive discussions on conversions into biofuels, bioplastics, high-value products, and animal feed. As one way forward, emerging advancements in genetic engineering to enhance pollutant removal capacities are presented alongside the development of microalgae consortia and integrated waste treatment processes. This multidimensional approach highlights the ultimate potential of marine microalgae in bioremediation and biomass valorization, laying the groundwork for a sustainable future achieved by working with nature, hand-in-hand.

Introduction

The health of our planet relies heavily on the well-being of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, which serve as life support systems and provide a vast array of resources. Despite the essential contributions of nature to human existence, targets for halting the degradation of land and oceans have not yet been met [1]. Our oceans, already burdened by the presence of around 5.25 trillion microplastics particles [2], are further threatened by an estimated numbers of 2.4 million tons oil spills entering water bodies annually [3]. At the same time, Earth has lost one-third of arable land in the past 40 years due to pollution and soil contamination [4], and the remaining two thirds are at risk of unsustainable agricultural practices, deforestation, and urbanization [5]. Moreover, industrial facilities, such as smelters, battery manufacturing plants, and mines, often release heavy metals and toxic chemicals which not only contaminate water bodies but also seep into the soil, posing a serious threat on the life on land and below water [6].

The tide of ecological damages can be stemmed by advancements in marine biotechnology, particularly through bioremediation– the process of using living organisms, mostly microorganisms and plants, to degrade, decompose, and detoxify environmental pollutants [7]. Among the most promising bioremediation agents are marine microalgae, performing natural purification with an excellent salinity and pollutant tolerance [8]. Marine microalgae are naturally adapted to thrive in high salinity, exposed to a constant influx of nutrients from upwelling zones and a broad spectrum of pollutants in the surrounding seawater. In contrast to freshwater microalgae, utilizing marine microalgae for bioremediation eliminates the need for complex and energy-intensive desalination processes [9]. Furthermore, marine microalgae demonstrate remarkable versatility in nutrient removal from wastewater under various trophic cultivation modes, even in high-stress conditions such as low light, limited inorganic carbon (CO2), and anoxic environments [10,11,12].

A new wave in bioremediation using marine microalgae is pushing the boundaries by focusing on retrieving additional value from harvested biomass and intracellular metabolites, not only offsetting carbon emissions and cultivation costs but also creating valuable products [13]. However, cultivating microalgae in wastewater raises a significant concern: potential presence of contaminants or toxins in the resulting biomass [14]. Despite limitations for food and feed applications, wastewater-cultured microalgae present an opportunity for biofuel production. High lipid content, reaching up to 37% in Dunaliella tertiolecta [15] and 46% in Nannochloropsis sp. [16], is ideal for biodiesel production via transesterification [12]. This approach offers a double benefit of creating a valuable end product and avoiding the risk associated with contaminated biomass for human or animal consumption. Additionally, anaerobic digestion remains a viable closed-loop valorization option, generating methane for energy production and nutrient-rich digestate for fertilizer [17]. Simultaneous utilization of pollutants and production of carbon–neutral energy ultimately align with Sustainable Development Goal 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy).

First and foremost, we ask: “How can humanity collaborate in harmony with marine microalgae for environmental restoration?” This review begins with an overview of isolation techniques and strain diversity to delve into the question, followed by bioremediation mechanisms and waste-to-worth valorization. As the urgency for sustainability intensifies, emerging advancements are showcased as an all-inclusive plan to foster circular bioeconomy, ensuring a greener future for years to come.

Isolation and screening techniques

Successful application of marine microalgae in bioremediation hinges on isolating strains with potent pollutant removal capabilities. Traditional methods involve DNA extraction, purification, amplification, sequencing, and taxonomic identification, which are time-consuming and require specialized equipment. Jahn et al. pioneered a new approach combining plate isolation with direct PCR (dPCR) to amplify a specific gene region, followed by electropherogram analysis to confirm single-species cultures. This cascade was shown to eliminate the need for DNA cloning, thereby reducing processing time to about three weeks [18]. Although dPCR may exclude some flagellates, combining it with single-cell Raman spectroscopy (SCRS) may capture a broader spectrum of strains [19]. As another strategy, microfluidic devices offer a high-throughput solution for screening and isolating diverse strains through automatic isolation. By cultivating single cells, seamless screening can be carried out with minimal sample volumes [20].

Despite the ease, downstream analysis remains crucial for identifying strains with desired bioremediation traits. One example of analysis technique is flow cytometry, which facilitates rapid screening of large cell populations with relevant bioremediation traits based on size and specific markers [21, 22]. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) and metagenomics provide deeper insights into genetic makeup and functionalities linked to bioremediation by revealing the entire genome, thus allowing precise analysis of pollutant reduction, nutrient removal, and coliform inhibition [23, 24]. Following identification, enrichment cultures and selective media further isolate and confirm desired traits, such as growth rate, pollutant tolerance, and biocompatibility, ultimately to ensure efficient and effective climate repair.

Strain diversity of marine microalgae

Vast diversity of marine microalgae offers a wide range of pollutant removal capacity [25], as summarized in Table 1. While fast-growing strains with high tolerance to pollutants are generally preferred, careful selection of strains is crucial, as different microalgae excel at removing specific types of pollutants, be it nutrients in wastewater [26], hydrocarbons [27], pharmaceuticals [28], and dyes [29].

Table 1 Strain diversity and pollutant removal capability
Full size table

Green microalga

Ezenweani and Kadiri studied the performance of Nannochloropsis oculata and Porphyridium cruentum in petroleum fuel fractions, and reported that N. oculata biomass increased in the presence of hydrocarbons, while P. cruentum growth was inhibited [27]. Another green microalga, Scenedesmus obliquus, can withstand high doses of sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole [33], and doxylamine [34], and achieve up to 62% removal of pharmaceutical contaminants. In wastewater remediation, Scenedesmus sp. and Desmodesmus sp. utilized nitrogen and phosphorus for growth, attaining biomass as high as 0.4 g/L with 91.2% and 66.2% removal of total nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively [26].

Intriguingly, Gowthami et al. investigated Picochlorum maculatum for the biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) to address the so-called “white pollution”. While the study reported weight loss and changes in LDPE properties, the observed 20% weight loss over 45 days suggested a very slow degradation rate [36], which might be due to the significant difference in polarity between the hydrophilic cell surface of Chlorophyta and hydrophobic LDPE [37].

Diatoms

Diatoms are noteworthy for their unique properties, such as rigid silica frustules and specialized transporters. The first complete genome sequence of Diplonema papillatum reveals a central role in polysaccharide degradation by utilizing carbohydrate-active (CAZyme families) enzymes, suggesting applications in mitigating eutrophication events [38]. Additionally, studies on two benthic oleaginous diatoms, Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Navicula pelliculosa, have shown potential in pharmaceuticals [30, 31, 39, 40] and heavy metal removal [32, 41], although growth inhibition remained a challenge. Thalassiosira pseudonana, another diatom strain, adapts to higher CO2 by employing a unique copper uptake mechanism: reducing copper accumulation to alleviate copper toxicity [35]. This highlights such a complex interplay in the event of ocean acidification, as it may lead to decreased metal interactions in marine organisms, although specific effects depend on the organism, metal type, and timescale of exposure.

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also referred to as blue-green algae, are known for nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling in polluted environments. Beyond nutrient assimilation, Synechococcus sp. and Aphanocapsa sp. show promise in removing chromium and lead [42], while Microcystis aeruginosa tackles zinc and cadmium [43]. Interestingly, habitat influences heavy metal uptake, as observed in Nostoc sp. isolated from limestone and freshwater. Ghorbani et al. revealed that Nostoc sp. N27P72 isolated from limestones have higher stress tolerance and higher uptake capacity of heavy metal ions compared to Nostoc sp. FB71 isolated from freshwater [44].

As environmental contamination grows, exploring microalgae diversity becomes increasingly significant. Continued efforts in isolating novel strains, conducting whole-genome studies, and exploring heavy metal cross-tolerance are essential in pushing microalgae-based bioremediation forward [45].

Bioremediation mechanism

Marine microalgae, poised to revolutionize environmental decontamination, utilize a diverse array of bioremediation mechanisms, broadly categorized into three: biosorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation [46]. Each of these mechanisms shown in Fig. 1 is discussed in detail throughout this section.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Bioremediation mechanism by marine microalgae, encompassing biosorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation

Full size image

Biosorption

Biosorption involves the passive binding of various pollutants, including heavy metals, organic compounds, and dyes, to the surface of microalgae, which is rich in carbohydrates and proteins. Functional groups (i.e., carboxyls, amines, phosphates) on the cell wall and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) interact with pollutants via mechanisms including electrostatic interactions, chelation, and complex formation. Notably, even after microalgae are rendered inactive through death or autoclaving, EPS remains intact in quantities comparable to living cells or isolated EPS, underscoring the crucial role of cell-associated polymeric substances. Several studies have confirmed the persistence of EPS in the removal of ibuprofen [39], dichromate [32], and dye [47] by Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge that pollutants interact with EPS differently, possibly influencing the efficiency and mechanisms of biosorption.

As microalgae bind pollutants, available sites for further adsorption decrease, leading to a decline in removal efficiency, especially with a high initial concentration of pollutants or the presence of competing ions in the medium. For instance, the presence of copper in a mixed solution can affect the adsorption capacity of Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus for cadmium [48, 49]. Some strategies are explored to enhance biosorption such as cultivation in higher pH range of 7.5 to 9.5 [50], elevating phosphorus content in medium [51], harvesting biomass at stationary phase [52], and employing alkaline pretreatment on microalgae biomass [53].

Bioaccumulation

Bioaccumulation refers to the uptake of pollutants across the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm through specific transport mechanisms, mainly facilitated trans-membrane diffusion and energy-dependent active uptake [54]. This uptake can induce stress in microalgae and subsequently trigger alterations in metabolic pathways and antioxidative defenses. For example, Dunaliella salina upregulates arsenic transporters when exposed to arsenic and performs detoxification by converting it into less harmful organoarsenicals [55].

A key consequence of bioaccumulation is the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) that acts as signaling molecules in regulating cellular function and metabolism. However, ROS levels increase with higher concentrations of pollutants, potentially overwhelming the antioxidant defenses within microalgae cells [56, 57]. Studies have shown increased ROS content in Chlorella vulgaris with increasing concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate, triflumizol, and nonylphenol [58]. To counteract damages from excessive ROS, microalgae upregulate the production of superoxide dismutase, catalases, and glutathione to scavenge ROS and maintain photosynthetic capacity [57, 58].

Complications arise when multiple pollutants are present, and competition for uptake is inescapable. For instance, microalgae may prioritize binding nanoparticles over metal ions due to the abundance, but high nanoparticle concentrations can trigger cell wall thickening and further reduce cellular metal uptake [59]. To address challenges posed by ROS and optimize bioaccumulation efficiency, immobilization can be employed for increased density, improved contact, and enhanced resilience. Numerous attempts have been made to maximize bioaccumulation by immobilized microalgae, such as optimizing bead size [60], formulating nutrient-rich media [61], and selecting appropriate entrapment matrices [62]. Achieving selective uptake of target pollutants while minimizing unwanted elements are ongoing research areas with significant promise for enhancing the bioaccumulation efficiency and sustainability.

Biodegradation

Biodegradation involves enzymes acting as biological catalysts in breaking down contaminants into specific molecules, including organic compounds, sugars, or CO2, in order to neutralize harmful effects without introducing toxic residues into the food chain (Fig. 1). Certain microalgae species exhibit selective biodegradation capabilities, targeting specific contaminants while leaving beneficial components in the water unharmed. For example, Nannochloropsis oculata performed up to 94% polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) removal by employing oxidoreductase [63]. In pharmaceuticals, Chlorella vulgaris and Phaeodactylum tricornutum demonstrated remarkable efficiency in iohexol and sulfadimethoxine biodegradation, respectively, and attained final removal rates of 40–59% [64, 65]. Recently, a newly isolated marine microalgae, Rhodomonas sp. JZB-2, was reported for the capacity to remove 30 mg/L para-xylene within 6 days [66].

The complexity of contaminants contributes to the slow pace of biodegradation in marine microalgae, as they may need to produce or adapt existing enzymes to break down complex molecules, limiting applicability in situations requiring rapid remediation. One approach to address this challenge is Adaptive Laboratory Evolution (ALE), which involves exposing microalgae to gradual increase of a specific contaminant over multiple generations. Li et al. successfully leveraged ALE to address time-sensitive bioremediation needs by generating Isochrysis galbana mutants capable of degrading high-level phenol at 300 mg/L within 10 days [67]. However, it is important to consider that ALE-derived strains may require further evaluation for adaptation to seawater environments typically used in marine microalgae bioremediation applications with different salinity and nutrient levels.

Waste-to-worth valorization

Waste-to-worth is a perspective of envisioning marine microalgae beyond the mere capture of nutrient buildup in water bodies and waste streams [68], to convert the nutrient-rich biomass into valuable products and promote circular bioeconomy (Fig. 2). This section explores the various applications of microalgae-derived biomass as a means of valorization.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Marine microalgae as the center of waste-to-worth perspective and circular bioeconomy, linking wastewater, oil spill, plastic debris, and heavy metal generated from urban and industrial activities to valuable products such as biofuels, bioplastics, high-value products, and animal feed

Full size image

Biofuels

The integration of microalgae cultivation with wastewater treatment presents a comprehensive approach to biofuel production, often referred to as the "waste-to-biofuels" concept. Marine microalgae, cultivated directly in wastewater streams, efficiently consume excess nitrogen and phosphorus for growth [13, 26, 69], then subsequently yield valuable lipids suitable for biofuel feedstock (Table 2). Cicci et al. reported that Scenedesmus dimorphus and Arthrospira platensis can produce lipid content as high as 48% when grown in modulated olive mill wastewater and cattle digestate [70]. However, one primary challenge lies in extracting these valuable lipids for biofuel production without compromising the bioremediation capacity of microalgae. For instance, maximizing lipid content for biofuels through nutrient depletion in P. tricornutum and N. pelliculosa can lead to reduced overall biomass, hindering overall nutrient removal and heavy metal detoxification [32]. To address this challenge, attempts are directed toward two-stage cultivation system (TSCS), where growth and production stages are separated [71]. TSCS allows for efficient bioremediation during the first stage in a nutrient-rich environment, followed by transfer to a nutrient-depleted environment in the second stage to trigger increased lipid production for biofuel generation.

Table 2 Waste-to-worth valorization by specific microalgae strain
Full size table

Reintegrating the remaining biomass, still rich in nutrients and residual lipids, back into the wastewater treatment process is a promising strategy for enhancing bioremediation efficiency. Another attempt was done by Arashiro et al. where higher energy recovery was achieved by combining pigment extraction and biogas production from residual biomass [72]. This integrated approach has the potential to improve overall bioremediation efficiency and reduce processing costs by minimizing waste generation.

Bioplastics

Bioplastics, specifically derived from marine microalgae, offer a sustainable alternative to traditional plastics. Numerous strains, particularly cyanobacteria such as Anabaena sp. [80], Synechocystis sp. [77], and Synechococcus sp. [78], are able to accumulate polyhydroxybutanoates (PHB) when cultivated in wastewater, with PHB content ranging from 2.4% to 7.4% dry cell weight (Table 2). Furthermore, the biomass itself can serve as a resource for developing starch-based bioplastics [81], or as reinforcing agent to enhance the properties of existing bioplastics through blending. Previous studies have demonstrated success in blending microalgae biomass with avocado-based starch [82] and chitosan [83], resulting in bioplastics with improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, and biodegradability.

However, efficiently integrating different waste streams, especially in large-scale processes, remains a challenge in the microalgae cultivation for bioplastics production. An innovative three-stage system utilizing large outdoor tanks (PBRs), each with a capacity of 11,700 L (3,100 gallons), demonstrated effective bioplastics production from cyanobacteria using agricultural runoff as the nutrient source. The first tank focused on selecting and growing cyanobacteria, achieving a high removal efficiency of 95% and 99% for total nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. Inorganic carbon was introduced in a feast-famine regime to the second tank to promote cyanobacteria growth, followed by continuous inorganic carbon supply in the final tank to enhance bioplastics production [84]. Ultimately, ensuring waste compatibility with microalgae growth and optimizing nutrient extraction are crucial for driving waste-to-bioplastics initiatives forward.

High-value products

Microalgae possess the remarkable ability to convert waste streams into a diverse array of high-value products with applications in pharmaceuticals, food additives, and cosmetics. One notable example is C-phycocyanin, a vibrant blue pigment protein (phycobiliprotein) which can accumulate to more than 15–20% of the total dry weight in cyanobacteria such as Spirulina sp. [85], Synechococcus sp. [79], and Cyanobacterium aponinum [74]. Another noteworthy valuable chemical is carotenoid, which has been produced through the valorization of aquaculture wastewater using Chaetoceros gracilis. Interestingly, nano silica was added in the culture medium as a catalyst to trigger utilization of excess nutrients in the wastewater, thus promoting growth and biomass accumulation [73].

Additionally, microalgae serve as valuable sources of essential fatty acids (EFAs), particularly long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) namely gamma-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [75]. Studies have demonstrated that cultivating microalgae in waste streams, such as palm oil mill effluent and fish waste hydrolysate, can yield higher concentrations of high-value compounds compared to conventional media [76, 86]. For example, increased production of arachidonic acid has been observed in Porphyridium purpureum under stress conditions when cultivated in a mixotrophic mode supplemented with organic carbon sources [75].

Nonetheless, a significant challenge in the bioremediation process lies in the downstream purification of these compounds from the complex mixtures present in waste streams, not to mention the essential encapsulation stage. Emerging non-destructive and selective extraction techniques, say osmotic shock and enzymatic extraction, enable the recovery of high-value products while facilitating the reuse of microalgae for subsequent bioremediation cycles [87]. This closed-loop system enhances sustainability and economic viability by maximizing the utility of microalgal biomass for the waste-to-worth concept.

Animal feed

Microalgae biomass represents a nutrient-rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals in animal feed production, particularly beneficial for aquaculture. Spirulina and Chlorella are renowned for their high protein content, ranging from 50–70% of dry weight, along with essential fatty acids (EFAs), antioxidants, and micronutrients crucial for livestock and fish health. However, a critical challenge arises regarding potential toxin accumulation through bioaccumulation pathways. Research on Dunaliella salina, for instance, revealed high levels of arsenic accumulation in contaminated environments [55]. Similarly, concerns about phenanthrene accumulation in Nannochloropsis oculata during bioremediation underscore the importance of careful strain selection and monitoring for animal feed applications [63]. Conversely, recent study on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) shows promise for Nannochloropsis oculata as a dietary supplement to mitigate environmental pollutant effects. Incorporating N. oculata into tilapia diets reduced mercury bioaccumulation, improved blood cell health, and mitigated organ damage [88], illustrating the dual benefits of microalgae in nutrition and environmental protection.

Strain selection for animal feed must prioritize high digestibility and minimal toxin accumulation. For example, Scenedesmus sp. DDVG I demonstrated 62% digestibility, potentially lowering toxin absorption risks due to reduced undigested material [89]. Addressing the challenge of toxin accumulation involves ongoing research into developing and selecting strains less prone to heavy metal and organic pollutant accumulation. Moreover, implementing proper pre-treatment and post-treatment processes, such as washing, enzymatic treatment, or fermentation, can reduce or eliminate toxins before utilizing biomass as feed. To ensure safety and quality, edible products should come from “safe” wastewater streams, such as those from the food, dairy, beverage, and brewery industries. Another possibility lies in combining microalgae cultivation with aquaculture systems, where microalgae serve as live feed for fish or shellfish, providing nutrients while simultaneously removing excess nutrients from the water [90]. This closed-loop system reduces reliance on external feed sources and improves water quality within the aquaculture unit.

Emerging advancements and future perspectives

Synthetic biology and genetic engineering

Ongoing research dives even deeper into the natural ability of marine microalgae, exploring possibilities of genetic engineering to enhance pollutant removal capabilities and the subsequent waste-to-worth concept, or to manipulate microalgal metabolism and introduce novel power. For instance, bacterial PHB biosynthesis pathway from Ralstonia eutropha H16 has been introduced into the cytosolic compartment of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, which enabled PHB accumulation of 10.6% dry weight in a granule-like form within the cell cytosol [91]. As another advancement in bioplastics, Moog et al. engineered a microalgae-based system for degrading PET, a common plastic found in marine environments, via heterologous overexpression of PETase from Ideonella sakaiensis into Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Functional PETase was successfully produced, allowing for the degradation of both PET and PETG plastics, even at moderate temperatures (21 ºC) in saltwater, on a par with real-world ocean conditions [92]. Understanding the underlying mechanism of pollutant removal at omics scale is essential to reveal novel target genes. For example, research has shown that ferroptosis is a key mechanism of Bisphenol A detoxification [93], which can be explored further by introducing it to desired hosts and explore wider possibilities of strain diversity. Another gene worth exploring is sulfate transporter gene encoding SULTR2, reported to increase chromium accumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii [94].

CRISPR technology, stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, serves as the foundation of developing genetic toolbox for marine microalgae. While it has been well established in freshwater green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, progress in marine microalgae is maturing, as implemented in Nannochloropsis oceanica [95], Phaeodactylum tricornutum [96], Chaetoceros muelleri [97], and diverse strains of cyanobacteria [98]. Breakthrough in in silico sgRNA design tools [99] and anti-CRISPR proteins [100, 101] are also employed to mitigate cytotoxicity and improve Cas9 expression. Further optimization strategies, including fine-tuning expression levels of heterologous genes, enhancing the efficiency of gene delivery methods, and precise mutagenesis without off-targets, are vital for maximizing the application genetic engineering in marine microalgae.

Development of microalgae consortia for complex scenario

Real-world bioremediation often faces the challenge of complex environmental scenarios with multiple pollutants, where axenic cultures may not suffice. Microalgae consortia, composed of multiple microalgae strains and even bacteria, offer advantages over single-strain cultures, including reduced environmental risk, higher biomass yields, and improved nutrient removal, with some consortia achieving over 70% nitrogen removal [102].

Metagenomics analysis, a powerful tool for studying microbial communities, can identify beneficial interactions between different microalgae and bacteria for bioremediation. For example, bacteria can act as “vitamin prototrophs” and provide essential vitamins to vitamin-auxotrophic microalgae in order to enhance productivity [103]. In a co-culture system, Pelagibaca bermudensis was reported to promote the growth of Tetraselmis striata, resulting in a 3.6-fold increase in biomass even under fluctuating temperature, light, and salinity conditions [104]. P. bermudensis secretes metabolic products that serve as growth substrates for T. striata, thereby enhancing growth and mitigating inhibitory effects from other bacterial metabolites.

Further optimization strategies, such as nitrate limitation or adjusting light and nutrient conditions, can enhance the effectiveness of these consortia. Developing robust microalgae-bacteria consortia tailored to specific environmental conditions and pollutants represents a significant leap forward in bioremediation, serving as a versatile tool to tackle complex environmental challenges and promote sustainable waste-to-worth valorization.

Integration of microalgae cultivation with external processes

Moving beyond standalone applications, integrating microalgae cultivation with existing bioremediation processes is foreseen to enhance overall system efficiency, specifically by capitalizing on the unique capabilities of microalgae to optimize treatment effectiveness. Combining microalgae cultivation with constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment allows microalgae to act as biofilters, which reduce nutrient load, enhance efficiency, and minimize downstream processing [105]. Additionally, microalgae can serve as a pre-treatment step in removing organic pollutants and particulates before the membrane filtration stage, thus extending membrane lifespan and improving filtration efficiency [106].

Microalgae-based biohybrid micro/nano-robots (MNRs) represent a groundbreaking approach to bioremediation (Fig. 3) by combining living microalgae with engineered components, such as magnetic nanoparticles or light-sensitive materials, to enhance targeted contaminant removal and treatment efficiency [107]. Another cutting-edge application is biophotovoltaics (BPVs), which utilize photosynthetic microorganisms to generate electricity for powering wastewater treatment processes. Okedi et al. demonstrated that Synechococcus elongatus sp. PCC7942 can absorb nutrients from wastewater while producing an electric current. This research highlighted the relationship between cell shape and electron transfer rates, with wider and longer cells showing better electron transfer, although this varies throughout the growth phase [108]. In future projections of ocean carbon storage, microalgae act as microbial carbon pumps, mediating the carbon reservoir through refractory dissolved organic carbon and contributing to negative carbon emissions in the ocean [109].

Fig. 3
figure 3

Cutting-edge advancement in bioremediation performed by marine microalgae, including synthetic biology, consortia development, and process integration

Full size image

Conclusion

Utilization of marine microalgae presents a promising avenue for addressing environmental challenges while simultaneously unlocking valuable resources, such as biofuels, bioplastics, high-value compounds, and animal feed. However, realizing the full potential requires ongoing research and innovation. Future studies should focus on optimizing genetic engineering techniques, understanding long-term effects, and maximizing efficacy in specific contaminant removal processes. Additionally, developing robust, commercial-scale microalgae-based bioremediation facilities, and applying artificial intelligence for database analysis are essential for widespread implementation. Continued efforts and collaboration will undoubtedly lead to innovative solutions, leveraging the unique capabilities of marine microalgae to mitigate environmental pollution and foster a greener, more resilient planet.

Availability of data and materials

All the figures are prepared by the authors, unnecessary for the permission of reproduced images.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

References

  1. United Nations Environment Programme. Pivotal fourth session of negotiations on a global plastics treaty opens in Ottawa. 2024. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/pivotal-fourth-session-negotiations-global-plastics-treaty-opens. Accessed on 29 April 2024.

  2. Laura Parker, National Geographic. Ocean trash: 5.25 trillion pieces and counting, but big questions remain. 2023. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ocean-trash-525-trillion-pieces-and-counting-big-questions-remain/#. Accessed 29 Apr 2024.

  3. Effendi H, Mursalin M, Hariyadi S. Rapid water quality assessment as a quick response of oil spill incident in coastal area of Karawang. Indonesia Front Environ Sci. 2022;10:757412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Evaluation at FAO: Learning from FAO projects on land and soils. 2023. https://www.fao.org/evaluation/highlights/detail/soils/en#:~:text=FAO%20estimates%20that%20nearly%20one,health%20and%20mitigating%20climate%20change. Accessed 29 Apr 2024.

  5. Federico Maggi, The University of Sydney. Two thirds of farmland at risk of pesticide pollution. 2021. https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2021/03/30/two-thirds-of-farmland-at-risk-of-pesticide-pollution.html. Accessed 29 Apr 2024.

  6. Liu YR, Van der Heijden MG, Riedo J, Sanz-Lazaro C, Eldridge DJ, Bastida F, et al. Soil contamination in nearby natural areas mirrors that in urban greenspaces worldwide. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):1706.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Rempel A, Gutkoski JP, Nazari MT, Biolchi GN, Cavanhi VAF, Treichel H, et al. Current advances in microalgae-based bioremediation and other technologies for emerging contaminants treatment. Sci Total Environ. 2021;772:144918.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Zafar AM, Javed MA, Hassan AA, Mehmood K, Sahle-Demessie E. Recent updates on ions and nutrients uptake by halotolerant freshwater and marine microalgae in conditions of high salinity. J Water Proc Eng. 2021;44:102382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Patel AK, Tseng YS, Singhania RR, Chen CW, Chang JS, Di Dong C. Novel application of microalgae platform for biodesalination process: a review. Bioresour Technol. 2021;337:125343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Rizwan M, Mujtaba G, Memon SA, Lee K. Influence of salinity and nitrogen in dark on Dunaliella tertiolecta’s lipid and carbohydrate productivity. Biofuels. 2022;13(4):475–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Young JN, Schmidt K. It’s what’s inside that matters: physiological adaptations of high-latitude marine microalgae to environmental change. New Phytol. 2020;227(5):1307–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Chakravarty S, Mallick N. Carbon dioxide mitigation and biodiesel production by a marine microalga under mixotrophic mode by using transesterification by-product crude glycerol: a synergy of biofuels and waste valorization. Environ Technol Innov. 2022;27:102441.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Kumar N, Banerjee C, Chang JS, Shukla P. Valorization of wastewater through microalgae as a prospect for generation of biofuel and high-value products. J Clean Prod. 2022;362:132114.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Markou G, Wang L, Ye J, Unc A. Using agro-industrial wastes for the cultivation of microalgae and duckweeds: Contamination risks and biomass safety concerns. Biotechnol Adv. 2018;36(4):1238–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Patel A, Gami B, Patel P, Patel B. Biodiesel production from microalgae Dunaliella tertiolecta: A study on economic feasibility on large-scale cultivation systems. Biomass Convers Biorefin. 2023;13(2):1071–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Wu J, Chen C, Wu H, Li T, Chen X, Wu H, et al. Enhancement in lipid productivity of the marine microalga Nannochloropsis sp. SCSIO-45217 through phosphate adjustment strategies. J Appl Phycol. 2023;35(3):1023–35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Kannah RY, Kavitha S, Karthikeyan OP, Rene ER, Kumar G, Banu JR. A review on anaerobic digestion of energy and cost effective microalgae pretreatment for biogas production. Bioresour Technol. 2021;332:125055.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Jahn MT, Schmidt K, Mock T. A novel cost effective and high-throughput isolation and identification method for marine microalgae. Plant Methods. 2014;10:1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Pinto R, Vilarinho R, Carvalho AP, Moreira JA, Guimarães L, Oliva-Teles L. Raman spectroscopy applied to diatoms (microalgae, Bacillariophyta): Prospective use in the environmental diagnosis of freshwater ecosystems. Water Res. 2021;198:117102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Wang J, Wang G, Chen M, Wang Y, Ding G, Zhang Y, et al. An integrated microfluidic chip for treatment and detection of microalgae cells. Algal Res. 2019;42:101593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Chebotaryova SP, Zakharova OV, Baranchikov PA, Kolesnikov EA, Gusev AA. Assessment of the potential of using microalgae from the genus Desmodesmus for the bioremediation of water polluted with TiO2 nanoparticles. Nanobiotechnol Rep. 2023;18(3):352–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Urrutia C, Yañez-Mansilla E, Jeison D. Bioremoval of heavy metals from metal mine tailings water using microalgae biomass. Algal Res. 2019;43:101659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Gunjal A, Gupta S, Nweze JE, Nweze JA. Chapter 4: Metagenomics in bioremediation: Recent advances, challenges, and perspectives. In: Kumar V, Bilal M, Shahi SK, Garg VK, editors. Metagenomics to Bioremediation. Academic Press: Elsevier; 2023. p. 81–102.

  24. Chowdhury BR, Das S, Bardhan S, Lahiri D. Chapter 8: Omics approaches for microalgal applications in wastewater treatment. In: Kumar V, Bilal M, Ferreira LFR, Iqbal HMN, editors. Genomics Approach to Bioremediation: Principles, Tools, and Emerging Technologies. John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2023. p. 143–156.

  25. WoRMS Editorial Board. World Register of Marine Species. 2024. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxlist. Accessed 20 May 2024.

  26. Kashem AHM, Das P, AbdulQuadir M, Khan S, Thaher MI, Alghasal G, et al. Microalgal bioremediation of brackish aquaculture wastewater. Sci Total Environ. 2023;873:162384.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ezenweani RS, Kadiri MO. Evaluating the productivity and bioremediation potential of two tropical marine algae in petroleum hydrocarbon polluted tropical marine water. Int J Phytoremediation. 2024;26(7):1099–116.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Santos MDJO, de Souza CO, Marcelino HR. Blue technology for a sustainable pharmaceutical industry: microalgae for bioremediation and pharmaceutical production. Algal Res. 2023;69:102931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Radwan EK, Abdel-Aty AM, El-Wakeel ST, Abdel Ghafar HH. Bioremediation of potentially toxic metal and reactive dye-contaminated water by pristine and modified Chlorella vulgaris. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27:21777–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Ding T, Li W, Li J. Influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the toxicity and removal of carbamazepine in diatom Navicula sp. Sci Total Environ. 2019;697:134104.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ding T, Lin K, Yang M, Bao L, Li J, Yang B, et al. Biodegradation of triclosan in diatom Navicula sp.: Kinetics, transformation products, toxicity evaluation and the effects of pH and potassium permanganate. J Hazard Mater. 2018;344:200–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Hedayatkhah A, Cretoiu MS, Emtiazi G, Stal LJ, Bolhuis H. Bioremediation of chromium contaminated water by diatoms with concomitant lipid accumulation for biofuel production. J Environ Manage. 2018;227:313–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Xiong JQ, Govindwar S, Kurade MB, Paeng KJ, Roh HS, Khan MA, et al. Toxicity of sulfamethazine and sulfamethoxazole and their removal by a green microalga, Scenedesmus obliquus. Chemosphere. 2019;218:551–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Xiong JQ, Cui P, Ru S. Biodegradation of doxylamine from wastewater by a green microalga, Scenedesmus obliquus. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:584020.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Xu D, Huang S, Fan X, Zhang X, Wang Y, Wang W, et al. Elevated CO2 reduces copper accumulation and toxicity in the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. Front Microbiol. 2023;13:1113388.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Gowthami A, Marjuk MS, Raju P, Devi KN, Santhanam P, Kumar SD, et al. Biodegradation efficacy of selected marine microalgae against Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): an environment friendly green approach. Mar Pollut Bull. 2023;190:114889.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Chia WY, Tang DYY, Khoo KS, Lup ANK, Chew KW. Nature’s fight against plastic pollution: Algae for plastic biodegradation and bioplastics production. Environ Sci Ecotechnol. 2020;4:100065.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Valach M, Moreira S, Petitjean C, Benz C, Butenko A, Flegontova O, et al. Recent expansion of metabolic versatility in Diplonema papillatum, the model species of a highly speciose group of marine eukaryotes. BMC Biol. 2023;21(1):99.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Santaeufemia S, Torres E, Abalde J. Biosorption of ibuprofen from aqueous solution using living and dead biomass of the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J Appl Phycol. 2018;30:471–82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Chang X, He Y, Song L, Ding J, Ren S, Lv M, et al. Methylparaben toxicity and its removal by microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J Hazard Mater. 2023;454:131528.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Ma J, Zhou B, Chen F, Pan K. How marine diatoms cope with metal challenge: Insights from the morphotype-dependent metal tolerance in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021;208:111715.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. de Souza PO, Sinhor V, Crizel MG, Pires N, Sanches Filho PJ, Picoloto RS, et al. Bioremediation of chromium and lead in wastewater from chemistry laboratories promotes by cyanobacteria. Bioresour Technol Rep. 2022;19:101161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Deng J, Fu D, Hu W, Lu X, Wu Y, Bryan H. Physiological responses and accumulation ability of Microcystis aeruginosa to zinc and cadmium: implications for bioremediation of heavy metal pollution. Bioresour Technol. 2020;303:122963.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Ghorbani E, Nowruzi B, Nezhadali M, Hekmat A. Metal removal capability of two cyanobacterial species in autotrophic and mixotrophic mode of nutrition. BMC Microbiol. 2022;22(1):58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Cui J, Xie Y, Sun T, Chen L, Zhang W. Deciphering and engineering photosynthetic cyanobacteria for heavy metal bioremediation. Sci Total Environ. 2021;761:144111.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Dubey S, Chen CW, Haldar D, Tambat VS, Kumar P, Tiwari A, et al. Advancement in algal bioremediation for organic, inorganic, and emerging pollutants. Environ Pollut. 2023;317:120840.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Santaeufemia S, Abalde J, Torres E. Efficient removal of dyes from seawater using as biosorbent the dead and living biomass of the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum: Equilibrium and kinetics studies. J Appl Phycol. 2021;33:3071–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Hockaday J, Harvey A, Velasquez-Orta S. A comparative analysis of the adsorption kinetics of Cu2+ and Cd2+ by the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus. Algal Res. 2022;64:102710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Gu S, Lan CQ. Biosorption of heavy metal ions by green alga Neochloris oleoabundans: effects of metal ion properties and cell wall structure. J Hazard Mater. 2021;418:126336.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Gu S, Lan CQ. Effects of culture pH on cell surface properties and biosorption of Pb (II), Cd (II), Zn (II) of green alga Neochloris oleoabundans. Chem Eng J. 2023;468:143579.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Li Y, Song S, Xia L, Yin H, Meza JVG, Ju W. Enhanced Pb (II) removal by algal-based biosorbent cultivated in high-phosphorus cultures. Chem Eng J. 2019;361:167–79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Li Y, Xia L, Huang R, Xia C, Song S. Algal biomass from the stable growth phase as a potential biosorbent for Pb (II) removal from water. RSC Adv. 2017;7(55):34600–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Martínez-Macias MDR, Nateras-Ramírez O, López-Cervantes J, Sánchez-Machado DI, Corona-Martínez DO, Sánchez-Duarte RG, et al. Effect of pretreatment on Cd (II) and Pb (II) biosorption by Nannochloropsis oculata microalgae biomass. J Appl Phycol. 2024;36:1339–52.

  54. Saini N, Dhull P, Pal M, Manzoor I, Rao R, Mushtaq B, et al. Algal membrane photo-bioreactors for efficient removal of emerging contaminants and resource recovery: current advances and future outlook. J Environ Chem Eng. 2024;12(3):112669.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Xi Y, Han B, Meng Z, Li Y, Zeng X, Kong F, et al. Arsenic uptake and biotransformation mechanisms in Dunaliella salina: Insights into physiological and molecular responses. Algal Res. 2024;80:103539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Zhang Y, Sun D, Gao W, Zhang X, Ye W, Zhang Z. The metabolic mechanisms of Cd-induced hormesis in photosynthetic microalgae, Chromochloris zofingiensis. Sci Total Environ. 2024;912:168966.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kumar N, Shukla P. Microalgal multiomics-based approaches in bioremediation of hazardous contaminants. Environ Res. 2024;247:118135.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Vale F, Sousa CA, Sousa H, Santos L, Simões M. Impact of parabens on microalgae bioremediation of wastewaters: a mechanistic study. Chem Eng J. 2022;442:136374.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Li H, Lin L, Liu H, Deng X, Wang L, Kuang Y, et al. Simultaneous exposure to nanoplastics and cadmium mitigates microalgae cellular toxicity: Insights from molecular simulation and metabolomics. Environ Int. 2024;186:108633.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Lee H, Jeong D, Im S, Jang A. Optimization of alginate bead size immobilized with Chlorella vulgaris and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for nutrient removal. Bioresour Technol. 2020;302:122891.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Huang R, Huo G, Song S, Li Y, Xia L, Gaillard JF. Immobilization of mercury using high-phosphate culture-modified microalgae. Environ Pollut. 2019;254:112966.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Han M, Zhang C, Li F, Ho SH. Data-driven analysis on immobilized microalgae system: New upgrading trends for microalgal wastewater treatment. Sci Total Environ. 2022;852:158514.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Marques IM, Oliveira ACV, de Oliveira OMC, Sales EA, Moreira ÍTA. A photobioreactor using Nannochloropsis oculata marine microalgae for removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sorption of metals in produced water. Chemosphere. 2021;281:130775.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Akao PK, Mamane H, Kaplan A, Gozlan I, Yehoshua Y, Kinel-Tahan Y, Avisar D. Iohexol removal and degradation-product formation via biodegradation by the microalga Chlorella vulgaris. Algal Res. 2020;51:102050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Li B, Wu D, Li Y, Shi Y, Wang C, Sun J, et al. Metabolic mechanism of sulfadimethoxine biodegradation by Chlorella sp. L38 and Phaeodactylum tricornutum MASCC-0025. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:840562.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Li H, Li H, Meng F, Zhang B, Lin Y, Wu J, et al. The biodegradation of Para-xylene in seawater by a newly isolated oceanic microalga Rhodomonas sp. JZB-2. J Water Proc Eng. 2020;36:101311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Li H, Tan J, Sun T, Wang Y, Meng F. Acclimation of Isochrysis galbana Parke (Isochrysidaceae) for enhancing its tolerance and biodegradation to high-level phenol in seawater. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021;207:111571.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Khan MI, Shin JH, Kim JD. The promising future of microalgae: current status, challenges, and optimization of a sustainable and renewable industry for biofuels, feed, and other products. Microb Cell Fact. 2018;17:1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Dias C, Santos JA, Reis A, Lopes da Silva T. The use of oleaginous yeasts and microalgae grown in brewery wastewater for lipid production and nutrient removal: a review. Waste Biomass Valori. 2023;14(6):1799–822.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Cicci A, Scarponi P, Cavinato C, Bravi M. Microalgae production in olive mill wastewater fractions and cattle digestate slurry: Bioremediation effects and suitability for energy and feed uses. Sci Total Environ. 2024;932:172773.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Aziz MMA, Kassim KA, Shokravi Z, Jakarni FM, Liu HY, Zaini N, et al. Two-stage cultivation strategy for simultaneous increases in growth rate and lipid content of microalgae: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2020;119:109621.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Arashiro LT, Ferrer I, Pániker CC, Gómez-Pinchetti JL, Rousseau DP, Van Hulle SW, et al. Natural pigments and biogas recovery from microalgae grown in wastewater. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2020;8(29):10691–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Saxena A, Singh PK, Bhatnagar A, Tiwari A. Growth of marine diatoms on aquaculture wastewater supplemented with nanosilica. Bioresour Technol. 2022;344:126210.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Lin JY, Ng IS. Thermal cultivation of halophilic Cyanobacterium aponinum for C-phycocyanin production and simultaneously reducing carbon emission using wastewater. Chem Eng J. 2023;461:141968.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Jiao K, Xiao W, Xu Y, Zeng X, Ho SH, Laws EA, et al. Using a trait-based approach to optimize mixotrophic growth of the red microalga Porphyridium purpureum towards fatty acid production. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2018;11:1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Yeung T, Wotton A, Walsh L, Aldous L, Conibeer G, Patterson R. Repurposing commercial anaerobic digester wastewater to improve cyanobacteria cultivation and digestibility for bioenergy systems. Sustain Energy Fuels. 2019;3(3):841–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Senatore V, Rueda E, Bellver M, Díez-Montero R, Ferrer I, Zarra T, et al. Production of phycobiliproteins, bioplastics and lipids by the cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. treating secondary effluent in a biorefinery approach. Sci Total Environ. 2023;857:159343.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Mariotto M, Egloff S, Fritz I, Refardt D. Cultivation of the PHB-producing cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis in a pilot-scale open system using nitrogen from waste streams. Algal Res. 2023;70:103013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Lin JY, Tan SI, Yi YC, Hsiang CC, Chang CH, Chen CY, et al. High-level production and extraction of C-phycocyanin from cyanobacteria Synechococcus sp. PCC7002 for antioxidation, antibacterial and lead adsorption. Environ Res. 2022;206:112283.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Simonazzi M, Pezzolesi L, Galletti P, Gualandi C, Pistocchi R, De Marco N, et al. Production of polyhydroxybutyrate by the cyanobacterium cf Anabaena sp. Int J Biol Macromol. 2021;191:92–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Mathiot C, Ponge P, Gallard B, Sassi JF, Delrue F, Le Moigne N. Microalgae starch-based bioplastics: Screening of ten strains and plasticization of unfractionated microalgae by extrusion. Carbohydr Polym. 2019;208:142–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Lubis M, Harahap MB, Ginting MHS, Sartika M, Azmi H. Production of bioplastic from avocado seed starch reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose from sugar palm fibers. J Eng Sci Technol. 2018;13(2):381–93.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Chong JWR, Tan X, Khoo KS, Ng HS, Jonglertjunya W, Yew GY, et al. Microalgae-based bioplastics: future solution towards mitigation of plastic wastes. Environ Res. 2022;206:112620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Rueda E, García-Galán MJ, Ortiz A, Uggetti E, Carretero J, García J, et al. Bioremediation of agricultural runoff and biopolymers production from cyanobacteria cultured in demonstrative full-scale photobioreactors. Process Saf Environ Prot. 2020;139:241–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Jaeschke DP, Teixeira IR, Marczak LDF, Mercali GD. Phycocyanin from Spirulina: a review of extraction methods and stability. Food Res Int. 2021;143:110314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Palanisamy KM, Bhuyar P, Ab Rahim MH, Govindan N, Maniam GP. Cultivation of microalgae Spirulina platensis biomass using palm oil mill effluent for phycocyanin productivity and future biomass refinery attributes. Int J Energy Res. 2023;1:2257271.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Chini Zittelli G, Lauceri R, Faraloni C, Silva Benavides AM, Torzillo G. Valuable pigments from microalgae: phycobiliproteins, primary carotenoids, and fucoxanthin. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2023;22(8):1733–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Mamdouh AZ, Zahran E, Mohamed F, Zaki V. Nannochloropsis oculata feed additive alleviates mercuric chloride-induced toxicity in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquat Toxicol. 2021;238:105936.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Devi ND, Sun X, Hu B, Goud VV. Bioremediation of domestic wastewater with microalgae-cyanobacteria co-culture by nutritional balance approach and its feasibility for biodiesel and animal feed production. Chem Eng J. 2023;454:140197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. de Moraes LBS, Santos RFB, Gonçalves Junior GF, Mota GCP, Dantas DMDM, de Souza BR, et al. Microalgae for feeding of penaeid shrimp larvae: an overview. Aquac Int. 2022;30(3):1295–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Hempel F, Bozarth AS, Lindenkamp N, Klingl A, Zauner S, Linne U, et al. Microalgae as bioreactors for bioplastic production. Microb Cell Fact. 2011;10:1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Moog D, Schmitt J, Senger J, Zarzycki J, Rexer KH, Linne U, et al. Using a marine microalga as a chassis for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) degradation. Microb Cell Fact. 2019;18:1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Carbó M, Chaturvedi P, Álvarez A, Pineda-Cevallos D, Ghatak A, González PR, et al. Ferroptosis is the key cellular process mediating Bisphenol A responses in Chlamydomonas and a promising target for enhancing microalgae-based bioremediation. J Hazard Mater. 2023;448:130997.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Tang Y, Zhang B, Li Z, Deng P, Deng X, Long H, et al. Overexpression of the sulfate transporter-encoding SULTR2 increases chromium accumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2023;120(5):1334–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Naduthodi MIS, Südfeld C, Avitzigiannis EK, Trevisan N, van Lith E, Alcaide Sancho J, et al. Comprehensive genome engineering toolbox for microalgae Nannochloropsis oceanica based on CRISPR-Cas systems. ACS Synth Biol. 2021;10(12):3369–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Slattery SS, Diamond A, Wang H, Therrien JA, Lant JT, Jazey T, et al. An expanded plasmid-based genetic toolbox enables Cas9 genome editing and stable maintenance of synthetic pathways in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. ACS Synth Biol. 2018;7(2):328–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Yin W, Hu H. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing via homologous recombination in a centric diatom Chaetoceros muelleri. ACS Synth Biol. 2023;12(4):1287–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Feng S, Xie X, Liu J, Li A, Wang Q, Guo D, et al. A potential paradigm in CRISPR/Cas systems delivery: at the crossroad of microalgal gene editing and algal-mediated nanoparticles. J Nanobiotechnol. 2023;21(1):370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Chuai GH, Wang QL, Liu Q. In silico meets in vivo: towards computational CRISPR-based sgRNA design. Trends Biotechnol. 2017;35(1):12–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Dong D, Guo M, Wang S, Zhu Y, Wang S, Xiong Z, et al. Structural basis of CRISPR–SpyCas9 inhibition by an anti-CRISPR protein. Nature. 2017;546(7658):436–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Rauch BJ, Silvis MR, Hultquist JF, Waters CS, McGregor MJ, Krogan NJ, et al. Inhibition of CRISPR-Cas9 with bacteriophage proteins. Cell. 2017;168(1):150–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kong W, Kong J, Feng S, Yang T, Xu L, Shen B, et al. Cultivation of microalgae–bacteria consortium by waste gas–waste water to achieve CO2 fixation, wastewater purification and bioproducts production. Biotechnol Biofuels Bioprod. 2024;17(1):26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  103. Tandon P, Jin Q, Huang L. A promising approach to enhance microalgae productivity by exogenous supply of vitamins. Microb Cell Fact. 2017;16:1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Patidar SK, Kim SH, Kim JH, Park J, Park BS, Han MS. Pelagibaca bermudensis promotes biofuel competence of Tetraselmis striata in a broad range of abiotic stressors: dynamics of quorum-sensing precursors and strategic improvement in lipid productivity. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2018;11:1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Zhao X, Zhang T, Dang B, Guo M, Jin M, Li C, et al. Microalgae-based constructed wetland system enhances nitrogen removal and reduce carbon emissions: performance and mechanisms. Sci Total Environ. 2023;877:162883.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Gerardo ML, Oatley-Radcliffe DL, Lovitt RW. Integration of membrane technology in microalgae biorefineries. J Membrane Sci. 2014;464:86–99.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Wang H, Jing Y, Yu J, Ma B, Sui M, Zhu Y, et al. Micro/nanorobots for remediation of water resources and aquatic life. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2023;11:1312074.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Okedi TI, Fisher AC, Yunus K. Quantitative analysis of the effects of morphological changes on extracellular electron transfer rates in cyanobacteria. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2020;13:1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Jiao N, Luo T, Chen Q, Zhao Z, Xiao X, Liu J, et al. The microbial carbon pump and climate change. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2024;22:408–19.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the financial support from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST 111-2221-E-006-012-MY3) and National Science and Technology Council (NSTC 113-2218-E-006-014) in Taiwan.

Funding

This work was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST 111–2221-E-006–012-MY3) and National Science and Technology Council (NSTC 113-2218-E-006-014) in Taiwan.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan

    Priskila Adjani Diankristanti & I-Son Ng

Authors
  1. Priskila Adjani Diankristanti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. I-Son Ng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Priskila Adjani Diankristanti: writing original draft and conceptualization, prepared all tables and figures. I-Son Ng: conceptualization, resources, supervision, writing-original draft, writing-review, and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to I-Son Ng.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This article does not involve human subjects, including tests on live vertebrates and/or higher invertebrates.

Consent for publication

The authors declare that they fully understand the manuscript content and they have agreed to submit it to “Blue Biotechnology”.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Diankristanti, P.A., Ng, IS. Marine microalgae for bioremediation and waste-to-worth valorization: recent progress and future prospects. Blue Biotechnology 1, 10 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44315-024-00010-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s44315-024-00010-w

Keywords

Blue Biotechnology

ISSN: 2948-2364

Contact us